Jump to content

Health in Nigeria

Edit links
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A hospital in Abuja, Nigeria's capital

In Nigeria, there has been a major progress in the improvement of health since 1950. Although lower respiratory infections, neonatal disorders and HIV/AIDS have ranked the topmost causes of deaths in Nigeria,[1] in the case of other diseases such as monkeypox,[2] polio, malaria and tuberculosis, progress has been achieved. Among other threats to health are malnutrition, pollution and road traffic accidents. In 2020, Nigeria had the highest number of cases of COVID-19 in Africa.[citation needed]

The Human Rights Measurement Initiative[3] finds that Nigeria is fulfilling 48.2% of what it should be fulfilling for the right to health based on its level of income.[4] When looking at the right to health with respect to children, Nigeria achieves 66.6% of what is expected based on its current income.[4] In regards to the right to health amongst the adult population, the country achieves only 61.7% of what is expected based on the nation's level of income.[4] Nigeria falls into the "very bad" category when evaluating the right to reproductive health because the nation is fulfilling only 16.3% of what the nation is expected to achieve based on the resources (income) it has available.[4]

Life expectancy and under-5 mortality rate

[edit]

Life expectancy at birth in Nigeria increased from 49.4 in 2007 to approximately 54 in 2017.[5] In a decade (2007–2017), U5MR per 1000 live births drastically reduced from 145.7 to 100.2.[6] In comparison with some other reference countries (Ghana, Malawi, Rwanda, Sudan, Norway, the United States, China and Australia), as shown in the second Table below, Nigeria with a population of about 195 million has performed poorly. The country has not done better when compared with the world average and the World Bank regions namely: East Asia & Pacific Northwest, Europe & Central Asia, Latin America & the Caribbean, Middle East & North Africa, South Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa.

Life expectancy at birth in Nigeria
Top 10 causes of most deaths in Nigeria
Cause of death IHME rank 2007 IHME rank 2017 Percentage change (2007–2017)
Malaria 1 4 -35.8
Diahrrheal disease 2 5 -39.5
HIV/AIDS 3 3 -25.7
Lower respiratory infection 4 1 -10.7
Neonatal disorders 5 2 -1.5
Tuberculosis 6 6 -15.2
Meningitis 7 7 -2.0
Cirrhosis 8 10 1.3
Ischemic heart disease 9 8 24.5
Stroke 10 9 15.0

Source: Institute for Health Metric and Evaluation (IHME)[1]

Under-5 child mortality rate (1964 - 2017) and life expectancy at birth (1960 - 2017) in Nigeria

Source: Under-5 Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births) and Life expectancy at birth (years). Estimates developed by the UN Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation

(UNICEF, WHO, World Bank, UN DESA Population Division)[5][6]

Comparison of health situations in Nigeria with some reference countries, regions and the world
Countries/Regions Life expectancy at birth (2007) Life expectancy at birth (2017) U5MR per 1000 live births (2017) U5MR per 1000 live births (2007) Estimated population (2018)
Nigeria 49 54 146 100 195 million+
Reference countries Ghana (Western Africa) 60 63 82 49 29 million+
Malawi (Southern Africa) 53 64 103 55 18 million+
Rwanda (Eastern Africa) 59 67 88 38 13 million+
Sudan (Northern Africa) 61 67 84 63 41 million+
Norway 80 83 4 3 5 million+
United States 78 79 8 7 327 million+
China 75 76 20 9 1.393 billion
Australia 81 82 5 4 24 million
Reference regions & world East Asia & Pacific 74 76 26 16 2.328 billion
Europe & Central Asia 75 78 15 9 918 million+
Latin America & the Caribbean 73 76 24 18 641 million+
Middle East & North Africa 72 74 31 23 448 million+
South Asia 66 69 71 45 1.814 billion
Sub-Saharan Africa 55 61 116 76 1.078 billion
World 70 72 58 39 7.594 billion

Source: United Nations Population Division. World Population Prospects: 2017 Revision. The World Bank Group[5][6][7]

Maternal mortality

[edit]
Successful emergency Caesarean section done in Nigeria.

Maternal mortality rate in Nigeria is above 800 per 100,000 live births.[8] In 2013, the rate in Nigeria was 560 deaths per 100,000 live births; whereas in 1980, it was 516 deaths 100,000 per live births.[9] This may be as a result of poor health facilities, lack of access to quality health care,[10] malnutrition due to poverty, herder-farmer conflicts, female genital mutilations, abortions,[11] and displacements due to Boko Haram terrorism in the North East of Nigeria.[12] In Nigeria the lifetime risk of death for pregnant women is 1 in 22.[8] Nigeria's abortion laws make it one of the most restrictive countries regarding abortion.[13]

A study published in 2019 investigated the competency of emergency obstetric care among health providers and found it lower than average.[14] Another study shows decrease in maternal mortality in the southern part of the country while it's still on the increase in North due to low level of education.[15]

Maternal mortality affects the socioeconomic development of the country negatively.[16] SDG goal 3 – target 1 aims to reduce Nigeria's maternal mortality ratio to less than 70 per 100, 000 live births by 2023. People can start by promoting and protecting their own health and the health of those around them, by making well-informed choices, practising safe sex and attending antenatal care in government approved health centres. There should be more awareness in communities about the importance of good health, healthy lifestyles as well as people's right to quality health care services, especially for the most vulnerable such as women and children. Government, local leaders and other decision makers should be held accountable to their commitments to improve people's access to health and health care.[editorializing]

Water supply and sanitation

[edit]
Further information: Water supply and sanitation in Nigeria

Access to an improved water source stagnated at 47% of the population from 1990 to 2006, then increased to 54% in 2010. In urban areas access decreased from 80% to 65% in 2006, and then recovered to 74% in 2010.[17]

Adequate sanitation is typically in the form of septic tanks, as there is no central sewage system, except for in Abuja and some areas of Lagos.[18] A 2006 study estimated that only 1% of Lagos households were connected to general sewers.[19] In 2016, mortality rate attributed to unsafe water, unsafe sanitation and lack of hygiene is 68.6 deaths per 100,000 populations.[20]

HIV/AIDS

[edit]
Further information: HIV/AIDS in Nigeria

The Nigeria HIV/AIDS indicator and impact survey 2018 revealed that the national HIV prevalence rate among adults ages 15–49 is 1.4 percent.[21] The prevalence of HIV in Nigeria varies widely by region and states. Akwa Ibom State has the highest prevalence rate of HIV with 5.6 percent and disease burden of 200,051 percentage of deaths and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), and followed by Benue State (4.9%, 188,482 DALYs) and Rivers (3.8%, 196,225 DALYs).[22] The States, Jigawa (12,804 DALYs) and Katsina (26,597 DALYs) both have the lowest prevalence of 0.3 percent.[23] The epidemic is more concentrated and driven by high-risk behaviors, including having multiple sexual partners, low risk perceptions, inadequate access to quality health care services,[24] as well as street/road hawking of goods by itinerant workers (hawkers) especially, around military and police checkpoints.[25] Other risk factors that contribute to the spread of HIV, including prostitution, high prevalence of sexually transmitted infections, clandestine high-risk homosexual/heterosexual practices, and women trafficking.[26] Youth and young adults in Nigeria are particularly vulnerable to HIV, with young women at higher risk than young men.[26]

Malaria

[edit]

Malaria, a disease caused by mosquitoes has resulted in untold morbidity and mortality in Nigeria. Although, there has been slight decline in malarial transmission and deaths since 2007 it ranked the number one cause of deaths in the country,[1] the disease still remain unflagging. As of 2012, the malaria prevalence rate was 11 percent.[27][28] A part of this data is from the President's Malaria Initiative which identifies Nigeria as a high-burden country.[29] Nigeria's branch dealing with this problem, the National Malaria Control Program recognized the problem and embraced the World Malaria Day theme of "End Malaria for Good".[30]

In 2017, according to IHME ranking, malaria ranked the fourth on the causes of most deaths in Nigeria with U5MR and under-1 child mortality of 103.2 deaths and 62.6 deaths per 1,000 live births respectively.[1] With pockets of high-level transmission persisting in states across Nigeria coupled with the never-ending struggle against drug and insecticide resistance as well as the socio-economic costs associated with a failure to eradicate the disease,[31] malaria eradication by 2050 seems unachievable. However, the step to eradicate the disease is a bold attainable goal if concerted efforts are put in place. The challenge of ineffective management of malaria prevention and control programs and inadequate use of data to inform strategies should be addressed. The control of mosquitoes, high quality diagnosis, and treatment are very necessary if the problem is to be successfully eradicated.[editorializing] Strong and committed leadership at various levels of government in Nigeria, reinforced through transparency and independent accountability mechanisms are very important to ensure a complete eradication of malaria in the country.[editorializing][31]

Endemic diseases

[edit]

In 1985, an incidence of yellow fever devastated a town in Nigeria, leading to the death of 1000 people. In a span of 5 years, the epidemic grew, with a resulting rise in mortality. The yellow fever vaccine has been in existence since the 1930s.[32] There are other endemic diseases in the country which include malaria, hepatitis A, hepatitis B, typhoid, meningitis.[33] and lassa fever.[34] Travelers are normally advised to get travel vaccines and medicines because of the risk of these diseases in the country.[33]

Food

[edit]

Nutrition, especially in the north of the country, is often poor. Since 2002, food staples are supposed to be fortified with nutrients such as vitamin A, folic acid, zinc, iodine and iron. Bill Gates, said there had been "pushback" by some in Nigerian industries as this reduced profit margins. The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation is donating[when?] $5 million over four years to implement a rigorous testing regime to make sure these standards are met. These nutrients would reach poorer children who ate mainly a cereal and beans diet at very low cost and reduce the risk of stunting. Vitamin A would reduce the risk of death from measles or diarrhoea. In some districts 7% of children die before they reach the age of five. Nearly half of these are attributable to malnutrition. Aliko Dangote, whose companies supply salt, sugar and flour, said there would need to be a crack down on the import of low-quality foodstuff, often smuggled into local markets.[35]

Pollution

[edit]

Traffic congestion in Lagos, environmental pollution:water pollution, and air pollution; and noise pollution are major health issues.

Water

[edit]

The aquatic systems in Nigeria are reservoirs for toxic chemicals. The activities of oil and gas industries as well as widespread discharge of effluents into water ways is an eyesore.[36] Chemical substances such as polyaromatic hydrocarbons, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances as well as heavy metals find their way into oceans, rivers and streams and contaminate them.[37][38][39] In 2018, The Nation newspaper reported improper waste disposal in the country, emphasizing that there is no proper waste management system, hence the cause of the indiscriminate dumping of refuse, used polythene bags, plastic bottles and other liquid and solid wastes in the environment.[40] The Huffingtonpost in May 2017[41] raised an alarm on the incessant dumping of plastics in the ocean. It posited that 'the oceans are drowning in plastics – and no one is paying attention to the menace'; and by indication, it seems people are overwhelmed by their own waste. Amidst this, Ellen MacArthur Foundation in Partnership with the World Economic Forum predicted that by 2050, plastic in the oceans will outweigh fish. With expected surge in consumption, negative externalities related to plastics will multiply by that time. Most wastes materials contain estrogenic chemicals - (estrogens) and androgenic chemicals - (androgens) and they have potential to leach into the surrounding environment, impact on the ecosystem and may alter hormonal functions.[39][42] These contaminants and many other chemicals are toxic to aquatic lives, most often affecting their life spans and ability to reproduce;[42] they make their way up the food chain as predator eats prey and bioaccumulate in the adipose tissues of these organisms.

Air

[edit]

Nigeria's air quality is said to be among the most unsafe globally (ranked 4th) and four of its major cities – Onitsha, Aba, Kaduna, and Umuahia are among the worst polluted cities in the world in term of particulate matter of size 10 micrometers and below (PM10). The most recent report by WHO indicate that the country's annual mean concentration PM2.5 is 72 μg/m3, far exceeding the recommended maximum of 10 μg/m3.[43] Data from the institutes of Health Metrics and Evaluation on Global disease burden (GBD) was used to ascertain the cause of death and DALYs in Nigeria from 2007 – 2017 and published literature where reviewed. According to World Health data report, most of the highest ranked causes of DALYs are related to environmental risk factors including chronic respiratory diseases, cardiovascular diseases, communicable diseases, maternal, neonatal and nutritional disease, which has cause about 800 thousand deaths and 26 million DALYs per year in Nigeria. Major environmental risks include indoor air pollution, ambient air pollution, water, sanitation and hygiene, although there is prolong and progressive decline in these except ambient PM and ground ozone pollution which show a steady rise associated with death and DALYs in Nigeria indicating a significant concern in environment health situation.[44]

Table showing the proportion of death for each disease attributed to air pollution in Nigeria at 2019 for both sexes and all ages[45]
Disease/disorder Air pollution attributable share of total death in percentages
Ischemic heart disease 4.37
Stroke 3.98
Lung cancer 0.39
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 0.89
Table showing the proportion of DALYs for each disorder attributed to air pollution in Nigeria at 2019 for both sexes and all ages[45]
Disease/disorder Air pollution attributable share of total DALYs in percentages
Ischemic heart disease 1,3
Stroke 1.47
Lung cancer 0.13
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 0.41

Causes

[edit]
an image of A Yellow Danfo Bus coursing Air Pollution in Lagos State. Nigeria
A Yellow Danfo Bus coursing Air Pollution in Lagos State. Nigeria

Nigeria is home to a lot of automobiles including cars, motorbikes, heavy duty vehicles like buses, lorries etc. that are old and past their best days in term of energy efficiency. They emit a lot of unhealthy fumes including nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, carbon dioxides, carbon monoxides, particulate matter etc. A large amount of waste across the country including household and industrial are disposed by combustion which releases fumes from both organic items, synthetic material like plastic, rubber as well as from dangerous items like batteries and e-waste etc. Most households also contribute to emission of noxious smokes and particulate matters like carbon soot etc. as they rely on inefficient kerosene stoves, fire wood and charcoal for cooking and most time this is done indoor with poor ventilation. Many offices and residences contribute to increased pollution level of the air with noxious fumes from generators which are used as substitute to the public epileptic power supply and these fumes are often released in largely unventilated areas. Other major sources including emission from factories and industries which release similar fumes like automobiles but uses mainly diesel in lieu of gasoline.[46]

Road traffic accidents

[edit]

Every year 1.25 million people are killed in a road traffic crashes.[47] Between 20 and 50 million more people suffer non-fatal injuries, with many incurring a disability. Road traffic injuries cause considerable economic losses to individuals, their families, and to nations as a whole. These losses arise from the cost of treatment as well as lost productivity for those killed or disabled by their injuries, and for family members who need to take time off work or school to care for the injured. Road traffic crashes cost most countries 3% of their gross domestic product. Road traffic injuries are the leading cause of death among people aged between 15 and 29 years.[48]

Over 3 400 people die on the world's roads every day and tens of millions of people are injured or disabled every year. Children, pedestrians, cyclists and older people are among the most vulnerable of road users. WHO works with partners - governmental and nongovernmental - around the world to raise the profile of the preventability of road traffic injuries and promote good practice related to addressing key behaviour risk factors – speed, drink-driving, the use of motorcycle helmets, seat-belts and child restraints.[49]

With the continued dangerous trend of road traffic collision in Nigeria, which in 2013 placed it as one of the most road traffic accident-prone countries worldwide (the most in Africa),[50][51] the Nigerian government saw the need to establish the present Federal Road Safety Corps in 1988 to address the carnage on the highways.

Level and trend of road traffic accidents

[edit]

The Federal Road Safety Corps (FRSC) says 456 people died and 3404 others were injured in 826 accidents recorded nationwide in January (2018).[52]

The FRSC stated this in its CCC report for January signed by its Corps Marshal, Boboye Oyeyemi.[53]

The UN Sustainable Development Goals

[edit]

In September 2015, the General Assembly adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development that includes 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Building on the principle of "leaving no one behind", the new Agenda emphasizes a holistic approach to achieving sustainable development for all.[54] Target 3.6 under Sustainable Development Goal 3 is designed specifically to addresses the issue of road traffic accident. It says "By 2020, halve (50% less) the number of global deaths and injuries from road traffic accidents".

The Federal Government of Nigeria has put some mechanisms in place to ensure implementation of the SDGs in the country[55] however, Nigeria is still far from achieving this goal.

Traditional/Alternative medicine

[edit]
an image of a tray containing local herbal medicine products and concoctions
A tray of local herbal medicine products and concoctions

As recent reports have shown, in addition to the many benefits there are also risks associated with the different types of Traditional medicine / alternative medicine. Although consumers today have widespread access to various traditional/alternative medicine treatments and therapies, they often do not have enough information on what to check when using them in order to avoid unnecessary harm.[56] While traditional medicine has a lot to contribute to the health and economy, much harm has resulted from unregulated sale and misuse of traditional/alternative medicine and herbs in the country and has significantly delayed patients' seeking professional healthcare.[57]

Climate change

[edit]

With around 200 million people,[58] Nigeria is the most populated country in Africa. As the continent's main exporter of oil, Nigeria faces the challenge of balancing global energy demands and domestic economic stability with the need to address climate and environmental challenges. The impact of climate change in Nigeria could include rising temperatures, more intense and frequent extreme weather events and sea level rise.[59] For the population, this could result in increased water and food insecurity, higher exposure to heat stress and ultraviolet radiation; changes in infectious and vector-borne disease transmission patterns; and an increased threat to coastal communities facing sea level rise.[59] It is however important to add that[editorializing] adequate adaptation and mitigation could help to protect the population, presenting opportunities for actions towards better health outcomes even in the face of numerous challenges posed by climate change.

The greatest health risk is for illness to result in mortality. Climate change has the potential to exacerbate prevalent diseases as well as emerging ones like High blood pressure, psychosis, neurosis and congenital malformations.[60] Climate change creates overwhelming problems for an already impoverished populace.

Health effects of pollution

Flooding is a consequence of climate change from rise in sea level and poor infrastructure, especially with drainage systems planning and design. For instance, southern Nigeria is highly susceptible to flooding; particularly Lagos, the commercial hub of the country, which is said to be one meter above the sea level,[61] is threatened with possible extinction. The direct health implications of flooding could be deduced to include direct water borne diseases like typhoid, cholera, pneumonia, diarrhea and malaria. These, as we will see in the table below are diseases that already immensely burden the Nigerian populace.

Percentage of Total Deaths and DALYs of common diseases that can be aggravated by flood
Percentage of total deaths Percentage of DALYs
Malaria 12% 11.16%
Typhoid fever 0.22% 0.24%
Diarreal diseases 11.36% 11.86%
Source: institute for Health Metric and Evaluation (IHME 2019)

The WHO has identified Schistosomiasis, African trypanosomiasis, malaria, lymphatic filariasis, onchocerciasis, and leishmaniasis as "major tropical diseases".[62] This is in consideration of their public health significance and economic consequences on afflicted individuals, families and societies. The devastating effects of these diseases are summarized in the words of Hiroshi Nakajima, former Director General, WHO: "beyond their toll of individual illness and death, these tropical diseases have insidious effects on society. They impede on national and individual development, make fertile land inhospitable, impair intellectual and physical growth and exact a huge cost in terms of treatment and control".[63]

Meningitis, measles, chicken pox and other health risks like high blood pressure and dehydration in pregnancy are also believed to be amplified by high temperatures. The number of people in emerging countries is expected to increase by 2.3 billion in 2005 to 4 billion in 2030.[64] This means more carbon emotions due to human activities. Growing urban sprawls, including poor housing also further compounds the problem.[65] These changes inevitably increase the peril heat waves in the cities due to the effects of climate change.

Additionally, high temperature affects diseases spread and rates of transmission of vector-borne and rodent-borne diseases. Temperature affects pathogen maturation rate and mosquito replication, the insect's density in a specific area, and increases infection likelihood.[66] Malaria parasites are recognized to remain sensitive to temperature, particularly throughout the so-called extrinsic period of incubation for parasite lifecycle, which happens once the parasite remains alive in the mosquitos.[66] For example, warmer temperatures promote faster reproductive cycles in mosquitoes that transit malaria and in the parasite itself.[67]

Although Nigeria has identified with the rest of the world in acknowledging climate change and its potential impacts for health and wellbeing, there are still gaps in the planning and implementation of actions to mitigate these effects. The WHO- Climate and Health Country Profile for Nigeria (2015), highlights the successes and shortcomings that characterize the country's climate change response. These include: identifying a national focal point for climate change in the Ministry of Health and the development of a national health adaptation strategy. However, no actions have been implemented towards building institutional and technical capacities to work on climate change and health. Also, Nigeria has climate information included in its Integrated Disease Surveillance and Response system, including development of early warning and response systems for climate-sensitive health risks. Albeit, no activities have been implanted to increase resilience of health infrastructure. Finally, it is important to note that[editorializing] no financial commitments (both domestic and international funds) have been made to implements any action towards health resilience to climate change.[citation needed]

These gaps present opportunities for actions, the implementation of which has potential to better prepare Nigeria as a country to mitigate the health risks that climate change poses to its people. The WHO suggests a comprehensive vulnerability and adaptation assessment with a focus on health that includes relevant stakeholders from all sectors and an estimate of the costs to implement health resilience to climate change, covering infrastructure as well as institutional and technical capacities. Furthermore, actions need to be taken, that will ensure greening of the health sector, such as promoting the use of renewable energy, and finally, conducting a valuation of the co-benefits to health of climate mitigation policies. This will, among other benefits, help to monitor progress.[editorializing]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d "What causes the most premature death in Nigeria?". 9 September 2015. Retrieved September 21, 2019.
  2. ^ "Driving and Public Health", Public Health, Oxford University Press, 2021-11-23, doi:10.1093/obo/9780199756797-0211, ISBN 978-0-19-975679-7, retrieved 2022-05-31
  3. ^ "Human Rights Measurement Initiative – The first global initiative to track the human rights performance of countries". humanrightsmeasurement.org. Retrieved 2022-03-26.
  4. ^ a b c d "Nigeria - HRMI Rights Tracker". rightstracker.org. Retrieved 2022-03-26.
  5. ^ a b c "Life expectancy at birth, total (years) | Data". data.worldbank.org. Retrieved 2019-09-22.
  6. ^ a b c "Mortality rate, under-5 (per 1,000 live births) | Data". data.worldbank.org. Retrieved 2019-09-19.
  7. ^ "Population, total | Data". data.worldbank.org. Retrieved 2019-09-19.
  8. ^ a b "WHO | Maternal health in Nigeria: generating information for action". WHO. Retrieved 2021-05-18.
  9. ^ "Maternal mortality". Retrieved September 21, 2019.
  10. ^ Welcome, Menizibeyaosain (2011). "The Nigerian health care system: Need for integrating adequate medical intelligence and surveillance systems". Journal of Pharmacy and Bioallied Sciences. 3 (4): 470–8. doi:10.4103/0975-7406.90100. ISSN 0975-7406. PMC 3249694. PMID 22219580.
  11. ^ "Health Challenges in the Present Democratic Era in Nigeria: The Place of Technology". Retrieved September 14, 2019.
  12. ^ "Boko Haram: A decade of terror explained". BBC News. July 30, 2019.
  13. ^ Iyioha, Irehobhude O. (2 November 2015). Comparative health law and policy : critical perspectives on Nigerian and global health law. Taylor and Francis. ISBN 978-1-4724-3675-7.
  14. ^ Okonofua, F.; Ntoimo, L.F.C.; Ogu, R.; Galadanci, R.; Gana, M.; et al. (April 2019). "Assessing the knowledge and skills on emergency obstetric care among health providers: Implications for health systems strengthening in Nigeria". PLOS ONE. 14 (4): e0213719. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1413719O. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0213719. PMC 6453439. PMID 30958834.
  15. ^ Meh, Catherine; Thind, Amardeep; Ryan, Bridget; Terry, Amanda (2019-11-12). "Levels and determinants of maternal mortality in northern and southern Nigeria". BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth. 19 (1): 417. doi:10.1186/s12884-019-2471-8. ISSN 1471-2393. PMC 6852989. PMID 31718572.
  16. ^ Olonade, Olawale; Olawande, Tomike I.; Alabi, Oluwatobi Joseph; Imhonopi, David (2019-03-14). "Maternal Mortality and Maternal Health Care in Nigeria: Implications for Socio-Economic Development". Open Access Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences. 7 (5): 849–855. doi:10.3889/oamjms.2019.041 (inactive 1 November 2024). ISSN 1857-9655. PMC 6447322. PMID 30962850.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  17. ^ WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation, 2010 estimates for water Archived 2012-12-03 at the Wayback Machine and sanitation Archived 2012-12-03 at the Wayback Machine
  18. ^ USAID: Nigeria Water and Sanitation Profile, ca. 2007
  19. ^ Matthew Gandy:Water, Sanitation, and the Modern City: Colonial and post-colonial experiences in Lagos and Mumbai, Human Development Report Office Occasional Paper, 2006
  20. ^ "Mortality rate attributed to unsafe water, unsafe sanitation and lack of hygiene (per 100,000 population)". Retrieved September 21, 2019.
  21. ^ "New survey results indicate that Nigeria has an HIV prevalence of 1.4%". www.unaids.org. Retrieved 2020-05-26.
  22. ^ "NIGERIA PREVALENCE RATE – NACA Nigeria". Retrieved 2020-05-26.
  23. ^ "Nigeria prevalence rate". Retrieved September 21, 2019.
  24. ^ National Agency for the Control of AIDS. Abuja, Nigeria. "Global AIDS Response Country Progress Report 2015". NACA.
  25. ^ Nnadozie, Prince; Onyenanu, Sylva (October 24, 2018). "Sero-Prevalence of HIV in Hawkers: A Rural Community-Based Cohorts in Ilesa, Nigeria". In: Proceedings of Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science & Technology, Trondheim, "Global Health Day": 16.
  26. ^ a b Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: "2008 Country Profile: Nigeria". U.S. Department of State. 2008. Archived from the original on 16 August 2008. Retrieved 25 August 2008.
  27. ^ "Nigeria-Malaria" Accessed May 1, 2016
  28. ^ "President's Malaria Initiative-Nigeria" Archived 2018-12-15 at the Wayback Machine Accessed May 1, 2016
  29. ^ "Where We Work" Accessed May 12, 2016
  30. ^ "National Malaria Control Program-Home" Accessed May 12, 2016
  31. ^ a b Feachem, Richard G A; Chen, Ingrid; Akbari, Omar; Bertozzi-Villa, Amelia; Bhatt, Samir; Binka, Fred; Boni, Maciej F; Buckee, Caroline; Dieleman, Joseph (2019). "Malaria eradication within a generation: ambitious, achievable, and necessary" (PDF). The Lancet. 394 (10203): 1056–1112. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(19)31139-0. PMID 31511196. S2CID 202044083.
  32. ^ Norrby E (November 2007). "Yellow fever and Max Theiler: the only Nobel Prize for a virus vaccine". J. Exp. Med. 204 (12): 2779–84. doi:10.1084/jem.20072290. PMC 2118520. PMID 18039952.
  33. ^ a b "Health Information for Travelers to Nigeria - Traveler view | Travelers' Health | CDC". wwwnc.cdc.gov. Retrieved 2019-09-21.
  34. ^ Coker, A. O.; Isokpehi, R. D.; Thomas, B. N.; Fagbenro-Beyioku, A. F.; Omilabu, S. A. (2000-07-21). "Zoonotic infections in Nigeria: overview from a medical perspective". Acta Tropica. 76 (1): 59–63. doi:10.1016/s0001-706x(00)00091-7. ISSN 0001-706X. PMID 10913768.
  35. ^ "Nigerian food sector commits to nutrient fortification". Financial Times. 5 August 2018. Retrieved 21 September 2018.
  36. ^ Ratcliffe, Rebecca (2019-12-06). "'This place used to be green': the brutal impact of oil in the Niger Delta". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2020-05-26.
  37. ^ Adeogun, Aina O.; Ibor, Oju R.; Adeduntan, Sherifat D.; Arukwe, Augustine (May 2016). "Corrigendum to "Intersex and alterations in reproductive development of a cichlid, Tilapia guineensis, from a municipal domestic water supply lake (Eleyele) in Southwestern Nigeria" [Sci. Total Environ. 541 (2016) 372–382]". Science of the Total Environment. 551–552: 752. Bibcode:2016ScTEn.551..752A. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.02.069. ISSN 0048-9697.
  38. ^ Ibor, Oju R.; Adeogun, Aina O.; Fagbohun, Olusegun A.; Arukwe, Augustine (December 2016). "Gonado-histopathological changes, intersex and endocrine disruptor responses in relation to contaminant burden in Tilapia species from Ogun River, Nigeria". Chemosphere. 164: 248–262. Bibcode:2016Chmsp.164..248I. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.08.087. ISSN 0045-6535. PMID 27591376.
  39. ^ a b Khan, Essa A.; Bertotto, Luisa B.; Dale, Karina; Lille-Langøy, Roger; Yadetie, Fekadu; Karlsen, Odd André; Goksøyr, Anders; Schlenk, Daniel; Arukwe, Augustine (2019-05-15). "Modulation of Neuro-Dopamine Homeostasis in Juvenile Female Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua) Exposed to Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Perfluoroalkyl Substances". Environmental Science & Technology. 53 (12): 7036–7044. Bibcode:2019EnST...53.7036K. doi:10.1021/acs.est.9b00637. hdl:1956/22362. ISSN 0013-936X. PMID 31090407. S2CID 206583654.
  40. ^ "Improper waste disposal: A threat to our survival". The Nation Newspaper. 2018-04-25. Retrieved 2019-09-19.
  41. ^ Mosbergen, Dominique (2017-04-27). "The Oceans Are Drowning In Plastic -- And No One's Paying Attention". HuffPost. Retrieved 2019-09-19.
  42. ^ a b Arukwe, Augustine (2008-04-09). "Steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein and cholesterol side-chain cleavage (P450scc)-regulated steroidogenesis as an organ-specific molecular and cellular target for endocrine disrupting chemicals in fish". Cell Biology and Toxicology. 24 (6): 527–540. doi:10.1007/s10565-008-9069-7. ISSN 0742-2091. PMID 18398688. S2CID 30275813.
  43. ^ Phoebe, Parke (2016). "Dirty by success? Nigeria is home to cities with worst PM10 levels". CNN.
  44. ^ Hyellai, Pona; Duan, Xiali; Olusola, Ayantobo; Narh, Tetteh (2021). "Environmental health situation in Nigeria: current status & future needs". Heliyon. 7 (3): e06330. Bibcode:2021Heliy...706330P. doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06330. PMC 8022161. PMID 33851039.
  45. ^ a b IMHE. "GBD compare/ viz hub".
  46. ^ Fargorite, Victor; Aderemi, Anifowose; Nnamdi, Chiokwe (2021). "Air pollution, causes, effect & remediation in Nigeria". International Journal of Advanced Academic Research. 7 (1).
  47. ^ "Snakebite envenoming". www.who.int. Retrieved 2020-05-27.
  48. ^ "Road Safety". WHO | Regional Office for Africa. 24 November 2023.
  49. ^ "Road safety". www.who.int.
  50. ^ List of countries by traffic-related death rate. Wikipedia. 2018-04-11.[circular reference]
  51. ^ World Health Organization. Retrieved 2018-04-18.
  52. ^ Nigeria, News Agency of (2018-04-12). "FRSC: 456 people died, 3,404 injured in road accidents in January". TODAY. Retrieved 2020-05-27.
  53. ^ "Nigeria records 456 road accident deaths in one month - Premium Times Nigeria". April 12, 2018.
  54. ^ "#Envision2030: 17 goals to transform the world for persons with disabilities | United Nations Enable". www.un.org. 9 February 2016.
  55. ^ "Assessing SDGs implementation in Nigeria". punchng.com. 4 July 2018.
  56. ^ "22750_volume.indd" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on September 29, 2009. Retrieved 2019-07-17.
  57. ^ "Excessive intake of local herbs causes kidney damage-Expert". Daily Trust. March 19, 2018.
  58. ^ "Nigeria Population (2021) - Worldometer". www.worldometers.info.
  59. ^ a b "Climate and health country profile - Nigeria". Climate & Clean Air Coalition.
  60. ^ "Nigeria Population (2021) - Worldometer". www.worldometers.info.
  61. ^ "Need to check flooding in Lagos". Businessday Newspaper.[full citation needed]
  62. ^ "CLIMATE AND HEALTH COUNTRY PROFILE – NIGERIA" (2015). {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)[full citation needed]
  63. ^ Onwuliri, C.O.E. (2009). Climate Change: Vulnerability Assessment and Adaption Strategies in Nigeria. National Conference on the Challenges and Consequences of Climate Change in Nigeria on the Occasion of the Celebration of the 2009 World Maritime Day Held at Abuja, 24th -25th Sept 2009.
  64. ^ "UN World Conference on Disaster Reduction Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) 2005 2015". Retrieved September 15, 2021.
  65. ^ "Nigeria Population (2021) - Worldometer". www.worldometers.info.
  66. ^ a b Kovats, R. Sari; Campbell-Lendrum, Diarmid; Matthies, Franziska (2005). "Climate Change and Human Health: Estimating Avoidable Deaths and Disease". Risk Analysis. 25 (6): 1409–1418. Bibcode:2005RiskA..25.1409K. doi:10.1111/j.1539-6924.2005.00688.x. PMID 16506971. S2CID 44398474.
  67. ^ Morufu Raimi; Omidiji Adedoyin Omidiji; Adio Zulkarnaini Olalekan (2019). Health Impact Assessment: A Tool to Advance the Knowledge of Policy Makers Understand Sustainable Development Goals. Association for Environmental Impact Assessment of Nigeria (AEIAN) On Impact Assessment: A Tool for Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals in Nigeria, 7th and 8th November, 2019 in University of Port Harcourt. doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.35999.51366.

Further consideration

[edit]
[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Health_in_Nigeria&oldid=1254910779"